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HISTORICAL SKETCH 



OP 



WESTFIEZiD. 






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BY EMERSON DAVIS, A. M. 

PRECEPTOR OF WESTFIELD ACADEMr. 



VYESTFIELD: 

l»RINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOSEPH ROOT. 
1826. 






ADVERTISEMENT. 

THE follov/ing sketcli has been composed witli as miieli^ 
accuracy as the nature of the subject would admit. If in- 
accuracies are found they are chargeable to my informers 
and the records I have consulted, and not to my voluntary 
misrepresentation of facts. Doubtless many circumstances 
important to a complete liistory of the town are known to 
some individuals which are not noticed in this sketcli. — 
Any information relative to the subject will be thankfully 
received. E. DAVIS- 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 



NAME. 

THE Indian name of Westiield was Warronoco, (or kcc) 
and was incorporated in 16G9, Edward Tyng, being mag- 
istrate of the ivlassacliusetts Colony. It was first proposed 
to call it Streamfield because situated between two streams, 
but upon furilier consideration it was called TVestfield be- 
cause it was nearly west from Boston the metropolis of the 
Colony, and also the most westerly plantation in New- 
England. 

FIRST SETTLEMENT. 

It is difficult to determine in what precise year the first 
permanent settlem<3nt was made in this town ; though 
probably between 1 658 and 1 660. At a town meeting held 
in Springfield Dec. 1658, a tract of land in Warronoco was 
granted to Thomas Cooper, on condition he commenced 
improvements upon said land in twelve months and contin- 
ued them five years. This tract was situated "over west 
river," probably not far from the county bridge. A simi- 
lar grant was made in 1660 to Deacon S. Chapman of land 
adjoining Cooper's. In 1661 a grant was made to Captain 
Pyncheon, Robert Ashley, and George Colt on, of a tract 
of upland meadow, probably lying between the rivers. 



It hence appears tliat Warronoco belonged to Spring- 
field. It was included in tlie original grant made to tlie 
first settlers of that town by the king of England. It was 
first settled by families from Springfield. The following 
is among the early records of that town : " Feb. 7, 1664, 
at a general town meeting, Captain Pyncheon, Maj. Hol- 
volce, and Messrs. Ely, Colton, and Cooley were chosen a 
standino- committee to have the sole power to order matters 
concerning Warronoco, both for admittance of inhabitants 
and to grant lands, or for any other business that may con- 
cern that place and conduce to its becoming a town of it- 
self." Some to whom grants of land were made forfeited 
their lands by a non-compliance with the conditions of the 
grantors. Lands were confirmed to those who continued 
their improvements five years. I find a record of a vote 
of confirmation of titles to the following persons, George 
and Isaac Phelps, Capt. Cook, Mr. Cornish, Thomas Dewy, 
J. Noble, David Ashley, John Hoyloke, John Ponder and 
John Ingersoll. These men lived near the confluence of 
Great and Little Rivers. They took up their residence 
here about 1666, as appears from the following facts. Meet- 
inffs were first held here in 1667 on the sabbath. The first 
English child born here was Benj. Saxstone who died in 
1754, aged 88 years, and was therefore born in 1666. A 
Botice of tliis is found in some loose papers of the Rev. 
Blr. Ballentine. 

I have been credibly informed that in a pamphlet pub- 
lished s^^onie years since, mention is made of the establish- 
ziient of a trading house, at the confluence of the two riv- 



ers, by three young men, some years previous to a perma- 
nent settlement. They spent one summer here, and were 
not heard of afterward. It was supposed they were cut 
off by the Indians. The pamphlet I have never seen. 

Each inhabitant owned a separate tract of land, but 
seem at first to have lived to a certain extent in common. 
They had a fort ne.ir the junction of the rivers, as sup- 
posed a few rods west of Harrison's tavern. In this they 
lodged every night, and fled to it by day in case of alarm. 
It seems from the records that a tract of land two miles in 
circuit about the fort was strongly enclosed. Within this 
enclosure they had all their dwellings. Houses were oc- 
cupied as forts in different parts of the town until since 
the French war in 1 775. 

Lands were not considered of great value. I find on the 
old record several votes like the following : " Voted, A.B. 
may have acres where he can find it." 

Warronoco was at first nine miles long and three wide, 
additions were made to it until it included what is now 
Westfield, Southwick, and Russell. The part now South- 
wick was at first called ''outer commons," and also a 
piece two miles in width from the north end of the town. 
The rest was called " inner commons". Southwick how- 
ever soon lost the name of outer commons. The tract 
between Southwick meeting house and '' poverty plains" 
was first settled about 1 740. Samuel Fowler father of 
the late Hon. Samuel Fowler was one of the first inhabit- 
ants, also Benjamin Loomis and a Mr. Olds. The south 
part towards Granby was settled about the same time by 



6 

families by tlie name of Moore and hence called Moore* 
town. The east part adjoining West Springfield and ex- 
tending to West Suffield was called Long Yard. South- 
wick by an act of incorporation became a separate town 
in 1779. Russell was called the New-addition. The 
first settlers in that part were two brothers of the name of 
Barber, and a Mr. Grey. They lived upon the road lead- 
ing from Westfield to Blandford by Sackett's and up the 
mountain then called Glasgow mountain, Russell was 
incorporated in 1792- 

It is difficult to give at this remote joeriod, any particular 
account of the difficulties the first settlers had to encoun- 
ter. We can only infer them from a few insulated facts, 
which I will briefly notice, that the present inhabitants, 
many of whom are descendants of the first owners of the 
soil, may know the hardships their fathers endured to pro- 
cure a peaceful residence for their posterity. They were 
a few families in a wilderness, then the accustomed haunts 
of wolves and bears, and a race of men more savage than 
the beasts that prowled in the forest. No habitation 
of civilized men to the west, small ones at Northampton 
and Hadley, at Springfied and Windsor, Conn. None of 
them were able to lend their aid for the protection of their 
neighbors in case of assault. They tilled their lands in 
company, while a few patrolled about them as sentinels. 
They carried their guns and ammunition with them to tlie 
field, and placed them near when they drew around the 
fireside w^ith their families. 



J- 

Philip's war. 
No special harm was received from the Indians until the 
commencement of this war in 1675. I have compiled an 
accomit of the injuries received during this war from re- 
cords kept by the Rev. Mr. Taylor. He remarks that 
they were sorely distressed yet sovereignly preserved. 
" Our soil," he says, " was moistened by the blood of 
three Springfield men, young Goodman Dumbleton, who 
came to our mill and tAVO sons of Goodman Brooks, who 
came here to look for iron ore on land bought of Mr, J, 
Pyncheon who accompanied them, but they fell in the 
way by the first assault of the enemy. At the same time 
Mr. Cornish's house was burnt to ashes, and also John 
Sackett's house and barn with its contents, it being the 
first snowy day of winter. They also lodged a ball in Mr. 
Granger's leg. It was thought the enemy received some 
loss, because in the ashes of Mr. Cornish's house the bones 
of a man were found. Also in the winter some scattering 
rascals upon a Lord's day in the time of afternoon worship 
fired Mr. Ambrose Fowler's house and barn, and in the 
week after Mr. Walter Lee's barn. On the last snowy day 
we had in the winter of 1675, we discovering an end of 
the Indians did send out a scout to make a full discovery 
of the same, designing only three or four to go with orders 
not to assault them, but to our woe and smart there going 
ten or twelve, not as scouts, but as assailants, run furiously 
upon them and received from the enemy a furious charge 
whereby Mr. Moses Cook an inhabitant, and a soldier not 
an inhabitant were killed." 



In the fall after nine men from Westfield, were at Deer- 
Held at the time of an attack upon that place, three of 
whom were killed. The few families residing here dm'- 
ing the war were so impoverished and distressed that some 
left, and all more than once were upon the point of relin- 
quishing their lands and uniting with other j^lantations for 
the purpose of protection. Thus their lives were in con- 
stant jeopardy, they were few in the midst of savages, 
destitute of the luxuries and most of the comforts of life, 
contented with such food as their own valley produced. 
Previous to 1675 a grist mill and saw mill were erected 
on a brook emptying into the great river just below the 
County bridge. These mills were erected by a company 
of four men Mr. Whiting and three Dewys. The toll 
•was regulated by a vote of the town. Debts were paid 
in grain or meat the price of which was also regulated by 
a vote of the town. In 1716 the price of Rye was three 
shillings. Corn two shillings and four-pence and Wheat 
and Peas four shillings and six-pence. When debts were 
paid in money a discount of one fourth was made by the 
creditor in all cases. The creditor was oblige to take 
what was offered in payment money or grain. Besides 
grain, tar and turpentine were also an article of traffic 
being manufactured by the inhabitants. Persons paid in- 
to the town treasury two shillings for every hundred 
boxes they employed in collecting turpentine from the 
white pine. 

INDIAN MISCELLANY. 

There was an old Indian whom they called Grey Lock. 



fiiat procliicc'd considora])le commotion among the people. 
He was constantly skulking about, way-laying them for 
tlic purpose of taking captives. lie caught a young lad 
b)- the name of Loomis, who went out of the fort in the 
earlj" part of the evening to get cherries. He was soon 
released. Mr. Bently in the cast part of the town worked 
at ditching all of one summer. He uniformly set his 
loaded g-an one rod before him and when he had cut his 
ditch up to the gun, would move it forward again, but 
the next year he was taken. Grey Lock said he had 
watched for an opportunity to take him all the year pre- 
vious, but could not ; he miglit have killed him but he 
wanted caj.tives. Mr. Bently was afterwards released, 
Mr. Noble, who lived near where Mr. Ambrose Day now 
lives, was much exposed. One night during family 
prayers Grey Lock stepped up and pulled the string and 
let the door swing oj^en, some of the family shut the door, 
and as soon as all was quiet he would pull th.e string again. 
Mr. Noble was persuaded by his friends to move into 
town. Grey Lock said he had several opportunities of 
killinor most of his children at a shot but did not want 
scalps so much as captives. 

Mr. Phelps who lived in Shepard-lane returning from 
work at Pochasuck, came to the fording place of Great 
River, and saw three Indians in the river. He consider- 
ed his situation perilous. They were coming towards 
him. He clapped his hands and exclaimed " here they 
are my brave boys, rush on, we have them," at which the 

Indians took the alarm and escaped* 

2 



10 

Noah Ashley of whom mention is maJc in another 
\)h\cc roturniii<T tVom work at Pochasuck was met hy an 
Indian near tlio Bancroft house. Both drew up their guns, 
but As]\hn' filed first and the Indian fled. lie was track- 
ed l>y hh)od tlirough tlie brush to aphicc near by, but was 
never found. The phiin has ever since been called "In- 
dian plain-'' 

A daughter of the second wife of a Mr. Sackett (her 
name I do not know) was taken caj^tive In* the Indians and 
carried to tlie Northwest part of New York, married an 
Indian, and remained among them as long as she lived. 
Iler descendants have been here to see their mothci's 
friends several times since the French war. Previous to 
that they used some exertions to make others of the Sack- 
ett family captives but did not succeed. 

About the time of the French war a man was killed at 
the Farms while looking for his cow, and another at South- 
am}>ton. He was in a bam threshing, with his gun stand- 
ing near, but a*; lie turned his back to the door, he was 
fired upon by the Indian and killed. 

A signal was given on the discoveiy of Indians in the 
vicunty by twice firing a gun. An alarm of this kind was 
once given and th? central village was deserted by all 
the male inhabitants : while absent a company of Indians 
appeared on the btmk south of the town with the intention, 
as it alterwards appeared, to make a hostile attack but 
were deterred, on seeing the number of the houses and 
smoke curling from every chimney, through fear of find- 
ing the whites of superior strength. Thus the town was 



11 

providentially preserved, when four or five might have 
laid it in ashes. I have been informed that two tribes 
wandered about in this vichiity. The rivers afforded fish 
in great variety in those days such as bass, salmon, shad, 
&c. and the forests abounded with bears, deer, &c. while 
on the meadows and plains maize was easily cultivated. 
A field on Little River now called Squawfield was proba- 
bly cultivated by them. There arrow heads and other 
Indian utensils were formerly found in abundance. There 
is a collection of there utensils in the Academy, together 
with an Indian'ts head, the bones of the skull and face near- 
ly perfect said to have been dug up in the vicinity of Hai'- 
rison's tavern. Very few facts relative to the aborigines 
have been recorded, and therefore I am able to give only 
a very brief account of them at this period. 

OTHER MISCELLANIES. 

Among the first settlers we find the names of Dewey, 
Sackett, Phelps, Ashley, Ingersoll, Cooke, Fowler, Wel- 
ler, Nell (or Neel or Neal) &;c. There were three Fow- 
lers among the first inhabitants, John, Samuel and Am- 
brose, probably brothers. John was married in 1689 of 
whom the late Deacon Ebenezer Fowler was a descend- 
ant. Samuel was married in 1681 of whom the late Hon. 
Samuel Fowler was a descendant. Samuel Fowler father 
of the Hon. Samuel Fowler was married in 1734 and set- 
tled in the north part of Southwick, then called poverty, 
from whichtime we may date the first settlement of that 
town. The other Fowlers of this to^^Tl are the descend- 
ants of Ambrose who was married in 1693. 



12 

Tlic late Doctor Israel Asliley was tlic great-grandson of 
i)avid Aslilcy one of tlie first settlers. Major Noah Asli. 
1 y wlio sliottlie Indian at rocLasiick was a descendant of 
David Ashley. He was killed in the French war in 1T75 
betvreen Fort Edward and Lake George. A party of ou)' 
men on a march between these places were attacked by 
surprise by a company of French and Indians a:id most of 
them killed or taken prisoners, Captain Jonathan Inger- 
voU and Richard Campbell of tliis town were killed at 
the same time. Two or three Westficld men escaped that 
massacre. John Ashley Esq. another of this family was 
appointed by Gov. Eclchcr, about 1735 to treat with the 
lloosatonnuc Indians. lie purchased of them a strip of 
laixl two miles in width and Iv.'enty-bix in length extend- 
ing from Westfield to Hoosatonnuc now ShefTicld. 

The Shepards settled here about 1 700. The Hon. Will- 
iam Shepard was a son of Deacon John Shepard. He 
was born in 1737 and enlisted in the army at the age of 17. 
Wlien 21 he was a Lieut, in the army commanded by Gen. 
Abercrombie, and when 22 he had a Captahi's commission 
under Gen. Amherst. He was in the French vrar six years. 
I|c was in the battles fought at Fort William Henry, Ti- 
conderoga, Crown Point, Isle aux Noix, St. Johns, and 
luontreal, At the close of the war he returned home to 
the enjoyment of domestic life, and continued with his 
family until the commencement of the revolutionary 
^otruggle. In 1775 he repaired to Roxbury with the Com- 
mission of Lieut. Col. and continued under the command 
uud near the person of Washington- He aided in bring- 



lag our troops from Long Island. In 1 TSO lie had a Gen- 
era's commission under La Fayette and continued in that 
station until the close of the war. lie fought in twenty- 
two battles, and established a high character for bravery, 
sound iudn-ement and humanity. At the close of the war 
"he returned like Cincinnatus to his plough." On his 
return home, he Avas appointed to fill oihces of honor and 
trust, being Major General of the Militia, a senator in the 
state Legislature, and a Representative to Congress. He 
was appointed by the Governor of Mass. to treat with the 
Penobscot Indians, and ])Y tlie National Government to 
treat with the Six Nations. TIio prominent traits in his 
character were sound judgement, undaunted courage and 
unbendino- integrity. He was a lover of his country and 
a cordial friend of the kingdom of the Redeemer. He 
lield the office of a deacon in the church 28 years. He 
died in 1817, aged 80 years. His widow is still living. 
This is compiled from a sermon preached at his funeral by 
the Rev. Isaac Knapp. 

Among the officers in the revolutionary war from this 
town besides Gen. Shepard, were Maj. Wareham Parks, 
afterwards Gen., Capt. John Gray and Lieut. David Sack- 
ett. A few from this tOAvn spilt their blood in their coun- 
try's defence. Abijah Dewy was killed at Roxbury near 
Boston neck. The ball struck his breast and literally tore 
him to pieces— James Ashley, Jared Noble and a Mr. 
Rogers were killed at the defeat of Col. Brown. There 
are a few men living in town who were out in the militia, 
or in the army one campaign, but only one, Mr. Russell 



14 

Dewy, who was out during the war. He Avas at the bat- 
tle of Bunker Hill, took his station at the rail fence, and 
held his ground till he had fired away 13 of the 17 catr- 
ridges he carried into the field. He was at some other bat- 
tles — One year he was absent from the army on account of 
sickness. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Westfield is situated eight miles west of Connecticut 
River, separated from it by West-Springfield. Little Riv- 
er comes in from the west and Westfield River from the 
north-west, they unite half a mile east of the Meeting- 
house. The central part of the town has the appearance 
of having once been a lake, and by geologiiits acquainted 
with the country is supposed to have been at some remote 
period covered with water. It is surrounded by an abrupt 
bank from 20 to 70 feet in height. In a few places as in 
the north-west extremity there is no well defined bank, but 
a gradual rise to the plains. Here the water of the lake 
must have been shallow. The bank in some places is 
clayey, in others gravelly and in others rocky. The lake 
must have been about seven miles in length from north-west 
to south-east and nearly three in width at the widest place, 
which is from the sandy bank near Mr. Frederic Fowler's 
to the high bank south of Ponder's hollow, so called, be- 
cause a family of that name lived there. In this part it 
was the deepest. The eastern extremity was at the toll 
bridge where it was narrow and probably 40 feet deep. 
The north-western extremity was near Wheaton's at the 
foot of Mount Tekoa, At this place Westfield River en- 



15 

fers. One stream only issued from the lake which was at 
the toll bridge. The Mount Tom range crosses here ; the 
mountain on each side of the stream at this place is com- 
posed of gravel with rocks embosomed, east from this the 
descent of the stream is rapid. The part of the town 
contained w ithin the banks might be inundated by raising 
a dam at tliis place 40 feet high. Sucli an appearance as 
I have here described, leads me to suppose this valley 
once the bed of a lake. It is not necessary to suppose any 
unusual convulsion of nature to have operated in emptyino- 
this lake. The constant abrasion of a stream of water upon a 
gravelly barrier wdiose impetuosity must have been auo-- 
mented vastly by the floods to which this valley is to this 
day subject, must have been sufficient to remove the oppo- 
sing mound of earth, leaving the whole body of w^ater in 
the lake, to roll in one desolating torrent down the valley 
of the Connecticut. Long lake in Vermont, was emptied 
of its w^aters in 1810 by the abrasion of a stream flowing in 
a small channel cut through a ridge of gravel at its north- 
ern extremity. Beneath the alluvial soil in this vallev, 
whose depth is various, is a strata of water worn j^ebbles, 
beneath this a strata of quicksand, wdiich renders it ne- 
cessary to curb many of the wells. Rising upon the bank 
the soil immediately changes from a rich alluvial to a 
sandy plain covered once with yellow and pitch pines. 
These plains are of great extent for the most part unin- 
habited, and produce rye, corn and buck-wheat. They 
yield from six to fourteen bushels per acre. 



#^,. 

^y^ 



J6 

A ridge of hills a braucli of the Green iiioiiatams skirts 
the western border of the iovra. Westiield River enters 
through a notch in this mountain. On tlie north side of 
the River, at the north-we&t extremity of the supposed 
lake is Mount Tekoa, tlic highest mountain in the vicinity. 
It is nearly as high as Mount Tom. It rises from the river 
very steep, rocky and sparsely covered with stinted pines. 
The view from this mountain is very fihe, and will richly 
repay the labor of ascent. The circle of vision is about 
55 miles in diameter. For the most part a woodland scene, 
with here and there a village church, a neat farm house 
embosom.ed in a cluster of trees, a well cultivated farm 
with cattle roaming over the hills, a lowly cottage, and a 
stream whose sparkling waters are at one time seen slowly 
meandering through the meadows, at another swollen by 
the mountain torrent and bearino- on its dark and heavinoj 
surges the wreck of bridges and mills and sv,xeping Avith 
them the herds that graze upon its banks. 

One mile further up the river is Salmon Falls. The 
scenery at this place is very beautiful. The stream is com- 
pressed and forced through a narrov/ passage tumbling and 
foaming for several rods. It its admirable rather for its 
wildness, than regularity. Often rainbows are seen in 
the spray rising form it, especially in the early part of the 
afternoon. From several points upon the bank surround- 
ing the town we have good viev/s of the village. 

MINERAL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 

Limestone is found in the west part of the town though 
not yet in quantities sufficient for quarrying. In tlie vi- 



# 



17 

cinity of the Limestone is found a beautiful, black Ser- 
pentine which might be turned and used for ornamental 
work of various kinds. In the low grounds red sand- 
stone is the principal rock. It has a coarse, conglomerate 
texture and is hewed for under pinning stone. At the foot 
of Salmon Falls is a quarry of Mica Slate suitable for 
paving side walks. It will probably be of some value 
when the canal is opened. 

Westlield furnishes a greater variety of vegetable pro- 
ductions than most towns on aqcount of having such vari- 
eties of soil ; sandy plains, mountains, meadows and 
swamps. We have here about 60 varieties of meadow 
grass some of which have been found no where besides in 
North America. Alders, poplars and willows blossom 
about the middle of March. Chesnut fencing stuff is 
brought from the neighboring mountains and lumber from 
the towns west and north. The elm, button wood and 
maple grow luxuriantly in this valley. 

EDUCATION. 

The first settlers of this town, like their cotemporaries, 
made special exertions for the education of their children. 
They employed from the beginning a schoolmaster six 
months usually, and at a later period through the year. 
The salary per year was from 38 to 50 £ paid in grain or 
money. A greater sum than is paid school teachers at the 
present day. The selectmen were the school committee. 
For a century all the children attended one shcool — now 
there are fifteen school houses. The instructor was usual- 
ly a man competent to instruct in the dead languages. A 



18 

woman's school was first kept in 1726 by the Widow Cath' 
criiie Noble. She was paid twenty-five shillings per 
month. The families over Little River had a school kept 
among them a few weeks in some years. The town al- 
lowed them £ 3, as their portion of the money. None 
were unable to read and write, though the education of 
females was limited. At the present day the standard of 
education is lower than it should be. Thorough and com- 
petent instructors need be employed, whose aim and desire 
shall be to advance their pupils in the rudiments of useful 
knowledge. Tlie public schools usually continue half of 
the year. Some exertions are now making in consequence 
of a recent act of the legislature to raise the standard of 
education in our common schools, which it is hoped wiU 
have a salutary tendency. 

Westfield Academy was chartered in 1 796 and opened for 
the admission of students in Jan. 1800. Preceptors have 
been employed by the year and seldom continued longer, 
against which practice experience teaches this objection, 
that men so employed are inexperienced in a great degree, 
and will not feel the interest in the welfare of the institu- 
tion that a permanent instructor must feel. This Acade- 
my has received less injury from this source than could 
reasonably have been expected. It has always haxl a re- 
spectable number of students varying from 30 to 100. A 
female has always been employed half of the year. This 
Academy has been greatly benefited by the interest taken 
in its welfare by the inhabitants of the town. The fol- 
lowing gentlemen have been Preceptors. Those in Ital- 



19 

ics are now clergymen. Peter Starr, Henry C Martin- 
dale since a member of Congress, Lijmun Strong, Alfred 
Perry M. D. Horatio Waldo, Saul Clark, Theodore North, 
Si/hester Selden, Francis L. Rabbins, Samuel JVf. Emerson, 
Alfred Stearns, Charles Jenkins, Stephen Taylor, Flavel S. 
Gaylord, George W. Benedict, now Professor of Mat'ic- 
matics, &c. in Vermont University, Elnathan Gndley now 
Missionary to Palestine, Alvan Wheeler, M. D. Emerson 
Davis and Parsons Cooke, Ail are graduates of Williams 
College except Elnathan Gridley, who graduated at Yale. 
The building was repaired in 1824. It has two school 
rooms on the lower floor and on the otiier a large hall and 
lecture room. The institution is furnished with a suffi- 
cient quantity of Chemical and Philosopliical apparatus 
for illustrating the general principles of those sciences. 
There is also a respectable collection of minerals for the 
use of the Academy. Instruction is given in the depart- 
ments of Natui al History to those who wish. The writer 
has had the charge of the institution since 1824. Terms 
continue eleven weeks— tuition is ^3 per quarter. During 
the Fall, Winter and Spring quarters 25 cents in addition 
il paid for fuel, sweeping, bell ringing, &c. Present num- 
ber of students 110. About 3000 have been educated at 
this Academy since its establishment, many of whom hold 
consnicuous stations in public life, and many others are 
useful members of society. The funds of the Academy 

are $5000. 

The following gentlemen from this town have received 

a collegiate Education. 



20 

1 Jonathan Ashley a son of Jonathan Ashley, graduated at 
at Yale College in 1730 at the age of 18. He studied the- 
ology and was -settled in the ministry at Deerfield. 

Israel Miley^ son of Deacon David Ashley and grand- 
son of David Ashley one of the first settlers, graduated at 
Yale College in 1731 at the age of 2\> He was a physi- 
cian of great celebrity, settled in this town, and died at 
Stillwater N. Y. 1758 surgeon of a regiment. 

Joseph JlshUy^ son of Samuel Ashley, graduated at Yale 
College in 1731 at the age of 22. He studied theology 
and settled in the ministry at Sunderland. 

Gideon J^oblc son of Martin Noble, graduated at Yale 
College in 1755. He was settled in the ministry at Wil- 
lincrton, Connecticut. 

John Strongj son of Ezra Strong, graduated at Yale Col- 
lege in 17G6. After leaving College he removed to Pitts- 
field and kept a public house for some years. 

Israel Moseley^ son of Israel Mosely graduated at Yale 
College in 1766. He studied no profession, but directed 
his attention chiefly to agricidture, in the latter part of 
his life he was a cripple and died in 1824. 

David Shepardj son of Deacon John Shepard graduated 
at Yale College in 1766. He studied medicine, practiced 
a while in Chester, and removed to Amsterdam N. Y. 
where he died in 1819. 

Moses Ashley^ son of Moses Ashley graduated at Yale 
College in 1767 at the age of 18. He resided in Stock- 
bridge after he left college and was drowned in the Hoos- 
atonnuc. 



21 

hratl Ashhy^ son of Doctor Israel Ashley, graduated 
at Yale College in 1767. He studied me Jicine, and resi- 
ded in this town till his death in 1814. He was a physi- 
cian of considerable celebrity. 

John Balkniine^ son of Rev. John Ballentinc, graduated 
at Harvard University in 1768. He studied thcolgy and 
preached a number of years. He was never settled over 
any parish and is still living. 

Samuel Fowler^ son of Samuel Fowler, graduated at 
Yale Colleo-e in 1768. He studied law and commenced 
practice in this town, but at the beginning of the revolu- 
tionary war suspended liis business and found employ in 
the army. At the close of the war he commenced agri- 
cultural and mercantile pursuits, and was afterwards a 
member of the legislature, and one of the Governor's 
Council. He died in 1823. 

WiUiara G. BaUentine, son of the Rev. John Ballentine, 
graduated at Harvard University in 1771. Studied theol- 
ogy and settled at Washington, Ms. and died 1820. 

Warham Parks, son of Elisha Parks graduated at Har- 
vard University in 1772 He studied no profession. He 
went into the army of the revolution with a Major's Com- 
mission. At the close of the war he directed his attention 
to agricultural pursuits. Died 1801 aged 49. 

Ebenezer Ballentine^ son of the Rev.jiJohn Ballentine 
graduated at Yale in 1 777. He studied medicine and settled 
at Schoodich in N. Y. afterwards removedto Marion, Ohio 
and died 1823. 



22 

&eth ^"clh, ?on of Thomas Noble, graduated about tlils 
time, at what College I cannot learn. He was a mini^iter 
in the Province of Maine, afterwards settled at Montgom- 
ery and finally removed to Ohio, where he died a few 
years since. He was a man of uncommon activity. 

Gerard Root, son of Martin Root, also graduated at some 
College, I know not where. After leaving College he was 
in the army in the vicinity of Saratoga and finally settled 
in the western part of New York. 

Saul Fowler, son of Daniel Fowler, graduated at Yale 
College in 1784. He never studied a profession. He is 
now living in South wick and is one of the Deacons of the 
congregational church. 

John Taylor, son of Eldad Taylor Esq. graduated at 
Yale College in 1784. He studied theology and was set- 
tled at Deerfield. His health became feeble and he lost 
his voice, and in consequence of which he was dismissed. 
Afterwards he resided in Enfield, Ct. till he regained his 
health and is now living at Mcndon, N. Y. and preaches 
part of the time. 

John Phelps, son of John Phelps Esq. graduated at Har- 
vard University in 1787. He studied law and practiced 
for several j^ears in West-Granville where he still resides. 
When old Hampshire County was divided he was appoint- 
cd High Sheriff of Hampden County which office he still 
holds. 

John Ingersoll, son of John IngersoU graduated at Yale 
College in 1790 He studied law and practiced in this 
town for several years. When the County was divided 



23 

lie was appointed Covmty Clerk for IlampJcn which of- 
fice he now hohls and resides in Springfield. 

Samuel Mather, son of Doctor Samuel Mather graduated 
at Jale College in 1784. He studied law, but died in 1789, 
aged 25. 

Royal Phelps, son of John Phelps graduated at Yale Col- 
lege in 1801. He studied theolvjgy and preached awliile, 
but was never settled over any congregation. He resides 
in tlic western part of New Yorlv. 

James Taylor, son of Col. James Taylor, graduated at 
Williams College in 1804. He studied theology and is 
now the clergyman of Sunderland. 

Daniel Mosely, son of Pliny Mosely graduated at Will- 
iams College in 1806. He studied law and is now in prac- 
tice at Canadaigua, N. Y. Sybil Mosely the wife of the 
Rev. Hiram Bingham, missionary to the Sandwich Islands 
is his sister. 

William Jltwater, son of the Rev. Noah Atwater, gradu- 
ated at Yale College in 1807. He studied medicine and is 
one of the practising physicians in this town. 

James Fowler, son of the Hon. Samuel Fowler, gradua- 
ted at Yale College in 1807. He studied law, but has fol- 
lowed argricultural pursuits ever since. He has been a 
senator in the Massachusetts Legislature and is now one of 
the Governor's Council. 

Moses Clark, son of a Mr. Clark who moved into town 
a few years since but soon died, graduated at Harvard Uni- 
versity in 181 9. He completed a theological course at An- 
dover and went to Louisania, with the intention of spend- 



24 

lag a number of years. He died near Natchitoches with 
the fever in 1824. He was a young man of more than 
ordinary talents. 

Warham Crooks^ son of Deacon John Crooks, graduated 
at Yale College in 1818, studied law and is settled in busi- 
ness at Springfield. 

Matthew Ives, son of Major Matthew Ives, graduated at 
Yale College in 1824 and is now" reading law. 

Samuel Perry, who was orginally from the State of New 
York, graduated at Yale College in 1824. He studied the- 
ology and was licenced last Spring. He is now preaching 
in New Hampshire. 

Hiram Smith, son of Simon Smith, graduated at Am- 
herst College in 1824. He studied theology awhile with 
a Clergyman and was licenced, afterwards spent a year at 
Auburn Theological Seminary, and is now preaching a§ a 
candidate. 

JVilliani G. Bates ^ son of Elijah Bates, Esq. graduated 
ut Yale College in 1825. He is now" reading law. 

Seth Mosely, son of William Mosely graduated at Union 
College in 1826. He is now reading law. 

The above includes all the graduates of Colleges that 1 
am able to find. Roland Parks, Samuel Fowler Jr. Will- 
iam JMosely Jr. Israel G. Ashley, Virgil Holland and 
Charles A. Jessup, completed only a part of their College 
course, most of them leaving on account of ill health. 

Henry B. King, son of Henry King, and Joseph M. Ely 
for some years past a resident in this town, are now mem- 
bers of the Sophomore Class in Yale College. 



23 

POPULATION. 

In 1671 this town contained 10 families, in 1754, 157 
and in 1 790, 248. In 1 790 the number of inhabitants was 
2224— in 1800,2148— in 1810, 2130— and in 1820, 2668. 
The population is now probably not far from 3000. 

SICKx\ESS AND MORTALITY. 

The small Pox prevailed in 1722, 1778, 1817, and 1818. 
The influenza in 1 789 prevailed extensively in the United 
States, and laid the foundation for many cases of consump- 
tion. It prevailed again in 1826. A slow fever proved 
fatal to numbers in the autumn of 1791. In 1803, 75 
died mostly of the dysentery. More in former years died 
of consumption than of any one disorder, latterly more 
of fevers. The number of deaths in 42 years past has 
been 1237. The average number per year is 29 1-2, more 
than 1 to a 100. About one fourth of the deaths are of 
those under ten years of age. None in this time have reach- 
ed the age of 100 ; 20 have died between 90 and 100. 

METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 

In May 1 792 two shocks of an Earthquake were expe- 
rienced in this place by which buildings were cansidera- 
bly shaken. The weather for three weeks previous had 
been warm and no rain had fallen. One afternoon in 1756 
there was a shock, so severe that bricks were shaken from 
chimneys. The rivers which run through this town on 
account of the proximity of the mountains are much 
swollen by thaws and rains. The water rises sometimes 
14 feet, and near one half of the valley is inundated. 
Such floods occurred in 1819 and in 1826, Bridges, 
4 



26 

buildings, cattle and fences were swept away and a strata 
of sand spread over the meadow lands. 

In nine years from Jan. 1786 to Jan. 1795 tlie average 
number of inches that fell in rain was 37, the average 
number cf inches of snow during the same time was 53 1-3, 
1775 was remarkable for the great quantity of rain that 
fell- it beinfr 51 3-4 inches and the snow 52 inches. In 
1796 only 21 inches of rain fell. Four inches of snow is 
equivalent to one of water. 

We had tornadoes that did considerable damage in 1804, 
1815, and in 1821. The average temperature of the at- 
mosphere is about 50 degrees Fahrenheit. July is the 
warmest month and January the coldest — we usually have 
the coldest days however in February and the w^armest in 
June. Most of this article is compiled from papers left 
by the Rev. Noah. At water. 

MANUFACTURES. 

Soon after the first settlement of the town tar was man>- 
ufactured. Grist mills and saw mills were erected. It 
seems from some records that people came here to mill 
from Springfield. A cotton factory was erected some 
years since on Great River, but was destroyed by fire and 
has not been rebuilt. The principal article of manufac- 
ture at present is whips — great quantities are made and 
carried to various parts of the country. This business 
furnishes employ for two or three hundred people. The 
manufacture of harness-trimmings, harnesses, cigars, leath- 
er, shoes, hats, waggons, cabinet furniture, distillation of 
spirits &c. &c. employs a great number of the inhabitants^ 



27 

giving acti\ it}^ to niercaiiliie business, and opening a ready 
market for the farmer's produce. 

West field from its local situation commands considera- 
ble trade from the neighboring towns. The Hampden 
Bank located in this town commenced its operation in Jan. 
18,26. It has a capital of $100,000, considerable part of 
which is owned in town. The Farmington Canal in its 
continuation to Northampton passes through this village. 
The survey has been made, a Canal Company incorpora- 
ted, the stock taken up, and the whole route of the Canal 
let out to Messrs. Hurd, Sheldon and Shepard. The ex- 
cavation commenced the first of November. 

A Printing Office was put in operation in Feb. 1824, at 
which the Hampden Register is published by Mr. Joseph 
Root, at present edited by Dr. Job Clark. 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

Meetings were first held on the sabbath in this town in 
1667. Mr. Holyoke, son of Major J. Ilolyoke of Spring- 
field, conducted them, whether he was a clergyman or 
layman I do not know. He however performed all the du- 
ties of a clergyman. After him a Mr. Fiske preached here 
as a candidate for settlement. Until within less than one 
hundred years people were called together on the Sabbath 
by the beat of a drum. A man was employed for that 
purpose and was paid 25 shillings per year. The first 
Meeting-house stood near Jedediah Taylor's Esq. Its site 
is now in the bed of Little River. A second house was 
built in 1720 — considerable difficulty was experienced in 
fixing its location. It was left to several committees from 



28 

abroad, from whose opinion the town saw fit to di sent and 
finally erected it near Jeremiah Mosely's — it Avas destroy- 
ed by fire. I'he present Congregational Meeting-house was 
built in the year 1805, 

In 1678 permission was granted by the Gov. of Massa- 
chusetts Colony to organize a church in Warronnoco. 
Mr Edward Taylor, was a candidate for settlement. He 
came here in 1671 and continued to j:) reach as a candidate, 
his settlement being deferred on account of the distresses 
occasioned by Phillip's war. A council was convened on 
the last Wednesday of June 1679, the church organized, 
and Mr. Taylor ordained pastor. Mr. Taylor was from 
England, spent seven years at Cambridge University in 
England, after his arrival in America he entered Harvard 
University and spent three years, completing the regular 
course of study required in the English Univer.^ity. He 
took his degree at Harvard in 1671 and came here that au- 
tumn at the solicitation of a committee sent to the Bay for 
the purpose of procuring a preacher. He was married in 
1674 to Miss Elizabeth Fitch,who died in 1689,and his sec- 
ond wife in 1729. One of his daughters married Mr. Stiles 
and was the mother of President Stiles of Yale College. 
Mr. T. was a man eminently devoted to the work of the 
ministry, of uniform, deep and consistent piety, and un- 
wearied in his exertion to promote the spiritual and tem- 
poral welfare of his people. Besides performing the du- 
ties of a pastor, and managing his domestic concerns he 
left 14 quarto volumes closely written of about 400 paoes 
each. They were not published. His salary at first was 



29 

£oO, in IG8G it was increased to i2 60 ; lie was also furu* 
ished with a small tract of land and his parishioners built 
Iiim a house. His salary was paid in grain or money ac- 
cording to tlie usage of those days. Mr. Taylor died June 
29, 1 729 in the 50th year of his ministry, on the account 
of the infirmities of age he had not j^reached for four or 
five years. The following is the inscription upon his 
monument. 

Here lies the body of the Rev. Edward Taylor, 
the aged, the venerable, the learned and 
pious pastor of the church in this town, 
who after he had served God 
faithfully and his gener- 
ation fell asleep 
.Jmie29, 1729. 
Previous to the death oi' Mr. Taylor some unsuccessful 
efforts were made to settle a colleague. They finally uni- 
ietd in the settlement of the Rev. JVehemiah Bull, he was 
ordained Oct. 1726. He graduated at Yale College in 
1723, he kept a grammar school in this town and preach- 
ed half the time for some months before his settlement. 
He was married in 1728 to Miss E. Partridge, of Hatfield 
and died April 1 740 in the 1 4th year of his ministry. Mr. 
Bull was a man of respectable talents and had the coiiii- 
dence of the public. During his ministry a mission to 
the Hoosatonnuc Indians was commenced. Mr. Hopkins, 
of West-Springfield having learnt something of tlieir 
condition and of their willingness to receive religious in- 
struction, set about the adoption of some measures to furn- 



30 

isli tliem with sucli instruction. Mr. Hopkins being talc- 
en sick, the Rev. gentlemen Bull of West field and Will- 
iams of Deerfield, were appointed by Gov. Belcher in 

1734 to superintend the mission They procured the Rev. 
J. Sargeant, then a tutor in Yale College. He came imme- 
diately to Westfield, and was accompanied to Hoosatonnuc 
by Mr. Bull. There was at tliat time 1 735 only one house 
between here and Sheffield. Mr. Bull after introducinfy 
Mr. Sargeant to the Indians remained some days and bap- 
tized the first Indian convert. 

Rev. John Balknthic, the successor of Mr. Bull, was a 
native of Boston and graduated at Harvard University in 

1 735 and v/as ordained pastor of this church and society 
June i7th, 1741, and died Feb. 12th 1776 in the 35th year 
of his ministry. His wife was a Miss Gay of Dedham. 
There was an unpleasant occurrence at his ordination. 
Several churches were sent to for assistance. The council 
convened agreeable to request, but not agreeing respecting 
the mode of ordination a part of the council withdrew 
leaving the pastors and delegates of only three churches 
to ordain Mr. Ballentine. No objection was alleged against 
Mr. Ballentine by those who withdrew. Mr. Ballentine 
was a man of respectable talents, and excelled I should 
judge in his knowledge of the ancient languages. He 
was attentive to the sprituai interest of his peoples, always 
present to adminster counsel to the sick, and to offer his 
prayers in tlieir behalf. 

Rev. JSmh Aiwater, the successor of Mr. Ballentine was 
born at Hampden, Conn, once a part of New Haven 



31 

and ;^radualed at Yale College ill 1774. He immediate- 
\y entered upon his theological studies, and, soon after he 
Was licenced preached here as a candidate for settlement, 
])ut on account of the distresses occasioned by the revolu- 
tionary war and the prevalence of the small pox the settle- 
ment of a minister was deferred. In 178S he returned to 
Yale College w^hcre he w^as employed as a tutor for about 
three years. lie then received a call to settle here in the 
ministry, which call he accepted, and was ordained Nov. 
21, 1781. He died Jan. 25, 1802, after having preached to 
his people 20 years. His last sermon was preached Nov. 
22 J 1801, and was published. From his funeral sermon 
preached by Dr. Lathrop of West-Springfield, I make a 
few brief e^itracts — " Mr. Atwater was blessed with supe- 
rior abilltes, a clear understanding, a capacious mind and 
solid judgement. He was a distinguished scholar and 
learned divine." He was given to hospitality, remarka- 
bly tender of character, a wise and paciiic counsellor in 
the churches, and filled up his time with assiduity. In 
proof of this latter trait of his character I mention the 
following circumstances. He never preached the same 
sermon to his people ivnce. alv/ays kept twenty sermons 
before hand, and completed his two sermons for the Sab- 
bath on Tuesday evening, leaving the remainder of the 
week for visiting and domestic concerns. He always rose 
])efore sunrise at all seasons of the year. He was a man of 
a philosophical mind and kept a record of astronomical and 
meteorological phenomena — most of his papers upon these 
subjects fell into the hands of the late President D wight. 



32 

The Rev. Isaac Knapp, the present minister of this so- 
ciety is a native of Norfolk, Ct. He graduated at Williams 
College in 1800, and was a tutor of the same in 1802 ai.d 
1803 — He wa3 ordained over this chuich and people Nov. 
IGth, 1803. 

The church at its first organization consisted of about 
ten members. The present number of communicants is 
three hundred. 

There have been twenty-five deacons, formerly they re- 
ceived ordination. 

It will be seen by the above records that all the clergy- 
men settled here have continued ministers of the society 
mitil removed by death. An ecclesiastical council has 
never been called to this town, except to organize the 
churches and ordain its ministers. 

BAPTIST SOCIETY. 

The Baptist Society of Westficld, was organized and a 
ehuroh formed in 1784. The society is composed of fam- 
ilies from Montgomery, Russell, and Westfield. They 
have two Meeting-houses, one on Little River, near the 
centre of the town, built from the remains of a house 
Avhich formerly stood near the county bridge ; their other 
house is five miles from the centre of the town on the west 
street of tliat part of the toAvn called the Farms near 
Montgomery. It was built in 1820— near this the pastor 
resides and generally preaches in each house alternately. 

Rev. Adam Hamilton was the first pastor of this church. 
He was a native of England, and for a long time highly 
esteemed by the baptist connexions. On account of mis- 



33 

concTuct he was rejected from the fellowship of the Bap- 
tist churches, and lost his reputation. He died at Ches- 
teriield the present year, and it is charitably hoped he was 
a true penitent fpr some years previous to his death. 

On account of Mr. Hamilton's misconduct the church 
become nearly extinct. They were destitute of a stated 
pastor and seldom, it seems held meetings on the Sabbath. 
The Baptist course was revived again, and a new church 
organized in May 1806 consisting of 11 males and 7 fe-= 
males. In 1807 Mr. Azariah Hawks was ordained pastor 
of the society and continued his labors about two and a 
half years, then removed to Euclid, Ohio, where he still 
resides. During his ministry 50 were added to the church 
many of whom were members of Mr. Hamilton's church. 
The church remained without a pastor many years, having 
occasionally preaching from the neighboring ministers. In 
1812, 60 were added to their church as the fruits of a re- 
vival in that year. After this Caleb Green preached for 
some time though he did not have any formal connexion 
with the society until 1818, and in 1819 he was dismissed 
and removed to Newport, R. I. He has since removed to 
Waterford, N. Y. where he now resides. 

In 1819 at which time there was an extensive revival in 
this town, Mr. David Wright commenced preaching here, 
and has continued their stated pastor until the present time. 
He was ordained Nov. 1819. The whole number of ad- 
missions to the church since its formation has been 347, 75 
by letter and the remainder by immersion. One hundred 
and forty-four have been separated from the church by 



34 

death, by removal to other places and on account of un- 
christian conduct, leaving 203 at present members. 

This notice of the Baptist church was furnished by the 
Rev. David Wright. 

METHODIST SOCIETY. 

There is a small Methodist society which hold meetings 
regularly on the Sabbath, and are supplied with preach- 
ers a part of the time. How long it has existed I do not 
know, though not many years. 



SOUTHWICK. 

The population of Southwick in 1810 was 1229, and in 
1820, 1255. The average number of deaths for several 
years past has been 14 ; a little more than 1 to 100. The 
first Meeting-house was erected one mile south of the vil- 
laoe. I am not informed in what year, probably soon after 
the town was incorporated. It was burnt about the com- 
mencement of the year 1823, and a new one erected in 1824- 
It is a very elegant church and wa ■ dedicated in December 
of that year. A Methodist Episcopal church was erected 
in 1824 in the south part of the town. A Baptist church 
was built in the central village about 1822. 

The first minister settled over the congregational society 
was the Rev. Alel Forward. He was a native of Sims- 
bury, Con. and graduated at Yale College in 1768 and was 
ordained Oct. 27, 1773. He was a faithful minister, use- 



35 

lul in life, and died in the faith of the gospel, Jan. 1786, 
much lamented by his people. 

Rev. Isaac Clinton graduated at Yale College in 1786, 
and was ordained pastor of the church in Southwick, Jan. 
1788. He published a treatise on Infant Baptism which 
went through two editions. The first was published in a 
pamphlet, the second in a duodecimo volume and bound. 
It is a work of merit. In 1803 most of his family died in 
the interval of a few days. He was dismissed in Decem- 
ber, 1807. He now resides in the northwest part of New 
York. 

Rev. Dudley Rossiter, a native of Stonington, Con. and a 
graduate of Middlebury College, was ordained Jan. 1816, 
and dismissed in March, 1817. He preached but a very 
few sabbaths after his ordination on account of ill health. 

Rev. Calvin Foote^ a native of Colchester, Con. gradu- 
ated at Middlebury College, in 1814, and was ordained 
Feb. 2, 1820. 

The number of members belonging to the Congrega- 
tional church is 70. 

Dr. Coit was the practising physician in this town for 
o8 years. He was a native of Plainfield, Con. and died 
April 1813, aged 59. He was a man highly esteemed. 
His widow is still living. Dr. Norton, from Guilford, 
Con. practised a short time and died 1818. 

I can find a record of only one from this town who has 
received a collegiate education. Homer Moore, son of 
Roger Moore, graduated at Yale College in 1806, studied 
1^^^' and removed to Ohio, where he soon after diedr 



m 

iliciiard Dickinson wlio dietl in this town in 1824, in 
liis last will appropriated $17000 for the benefit of the 
schools. A sum not exceeding one half goes to the support 
of a grammar school, and the remainder to the district 
schools. The interest only is to be appropriated. The 
town have erected a building for the accommodation of the 
grammar school which is nearly completed. The school 
is soon to be opened — it is free to the youth of Southwick- 



'l^ 



^,^/M^X<v^ 




l^lj^t^r^ t%t 7^t%i%t\^- 



W^estfield Mo^ksiere^ 



THE proprietor of this estabiisliment would respectfully inform 
the public that he is constantly making additions to his catalogue of 
Books, and has noAv on hand a good assortment of Miscellaneous 
Works, all of which will be soUl at the lowest prices. 

On hand a complete assortment of Large Family Bibles, Common^ 
Pocket and Sciiooi ditto. 

Worcester's Watts and Select Hym.ns, which are used in the Rev. 
Mi\ Knapp's church, and in many of the adjoining towns. 

Constantly on hand a general assortment of such School Books, 
as are in common use in this vicinity, and are offered at fair prices. 

All articles of Stationary usually kept in a Bookstore are always 
on hand, among which are, Gold Paper ; Fancy Colored do. ; In- 
dia Ink ; Reeve's Water Paints ; Camel's Hair Pencils ; English 
Drawing Paper, of the first quality and at the Boston prices ; Mo- 
rocco Paper ; Ready Made Ink in Bottles ; Slates and Pencils ; Lead 
Pencils, by the dozen or 'single ; Ink Stands ; Sealing Wax ; Calf 
Skin and Morocco Pocket Books, &c. &c. 

A general assortment of Children's, and Toy Books ; School Cer- 
tificates and Rewards of Merit, in large or small quantities. 



The subscriber having lately furnished himself with a good as* 
sortment of Job Type, is enabled to execute 

in good style ana with neatness. All orders for Printing Pamphlets, 
Handbills, Cards, Blank Notes, Orders, &c. &c. will be thankfully 
received and punctually attended to. JOSEPH. ROOT, 

Office of the Hcwipden Register^ JS\v, 16, 18^0. 



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